Quotes

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Listen to speeches, interviews, talks, and messages of environmental leaders and experts on biodiversity loss.

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International Organization Leaders

• Antonio Guterres: UNEP Making Peace with Nature Report Release 2021

  

  I want to be clear. Without nature’s help, we will not thrive or even survive. For too long, we have been waging a suicidal and senseless war on nature. The result is three interlinked environmental crises, climate disruption, biodiversity loss, and pollution, that threaten our viability as a species. And they are caused by unsustainable production and consumption. Human well-being lies in protecting the health of the planet and it is time to re-evaluate and reset our relationship with nature. And this report can help us to do so. Today, around the world we are overexploiting and degrading the environment on land and sea. The atmosphere and ocean have become dumping grounds for our wastes. And governments are still paying more to exploit nature than to protect it. Globally, countries spend more some $4-6 billion a year on subsidies that damage the environment. And the interlinked climate, biodiversity, and pollution crisis require urgent action from the whole of society from governments, but also from international organizations, from businesses, from cities, and individuals. People’s choices matter. … Hear message.

  
  

• Antonio Guterres: Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) COP15 Remarks 2022

  

  Nature is humanity’s best friend. Without nature, we have nothing. Without nature, we are nothing. Nature is our life-supporting system. It is the source and sustainer of the air we breathe, the food we eat, the energy we use, jobs, and economic activities we count on, the species that enrich human life, and the landscapes and waterscapes we call home. And yet humanity seems hell-bent on destruction. We are waging war on nature. This conference is about the urgent task of making peace because today we are out of harmony with nature. In fact, we are playing an entirely different song. Around the world for hundreds of years we have conducted a cacophony of chaos, played with instruments of destruction. Deforestation and desertification are creating waste lands of once thriving ecosystems. Our land, water, and air are poisoned by chemicals and pesticides and choked with plastics. Our addiction to fossil fuels has thrown our climate into chaos from heatwaves and forest fires to communities parched by heat and drought or inundated by terrifying floods…Ecosystems have become play-things of profits. With our bottomless appetite for unchecked, unequal economic growth, humanity has become a weapon of mass extinction. We are treating nature like a toilet and ultimately we are committing suicide by nature because the loss of nature and biodiversity comes with a steep cost…My friends it’s time to forge a peace pact with nature. Hear message.

  
  

• Ban Ki Moon: International Year of Biodiversity 2010

  

  Our lives are dependent on biological diversity. Species and ecosystems are disappearing at an unsustainable rate. We humans are the cause. We stand to lose a wide variety of environmental goods and services that we take for granted. The consequences of economies and people will be profound especially for the world’s poorest people. In 2002, world leaders agreed to substantially reduce the rate of biodiversity loss by 2010. We know already that the biodiversity target will not be met. We need new vision and new efforts. Business as usual is not an option. For this international year of biodiversity, I call on every country and each citizen of our planet to join together in the global alliance to protect life on Earth. Biodiversity is life. Biodiversity is our life. Hear message.

  
  

• Bruno Oberle: Statement to UN Summit on Biodiversity

  

  Biodiversity is declining globally at rates unprecedented in human history, causing fundamental harm to nature and people. IUCN draws urgent attention to the nature emergency while recognizing it must be tackled in tandem with climate change. We can address this emergency to the Post-2020 Biodiversity Framework with targets that add up from local to national to global levels. Together, we must halt biodiversity loss by 2030 and strive to restoration for net gain by 2050. The Framework must be for everyone. The Rio and biodiversity related conventions, all governments, the private sector, indigenous people, local communities, and all of civil society. It must clearly link to the 2030 agenda and communicate how biodiversity conservation is critical to sustainable development. Our crucial ally is nature itself… Hear message.

  
  

• Elizabeth Mrema: Carbon Brief Interview 2022

  

  There is no way they can be tackled in silos. Otherwise climate/global warming will continue, biodiversity loss will continue. And the recent years have clearly demonstrated that climate change and loss of biodiversity are intrinsically connected. And because they are connected, solutions to climate change…climate change is looking at nature-based solutions for climate change so it means biodiversity is providing solutions for climate change. Therefore, you cannot deal with climate change without nature and we cannot deal with nature and biodiversity without climate change. Thirty percent of climate mitigation and adaptation to reduce greenhouse gas emissions will come from biodiversity nature… Hear message.

  
  

• Elizabeth Mrema: Climate Thought Leader 2022

  

  I grew up seeing our villages full of trees, very bushy, very cool, plenty of water. Water would be flowing throughout the year like in small streams. Water would be flowing in our banana plants which is our staple food in every each homesteads. But as I continue to grow, by the time I reached later secondary level, later university, the outlook began changing. The bush, the forest, you see more holes and spaces. The weather kept changing. And as I speak, even those rivers that I see when I get home when you see the water flowing in the streams in backyard have completely dried up. This is what made me begin asking questions to myself, what is going on?…But we know biodiversity just like all other environmental issues -they are cross-cutting issues. The challenges are cross-cutting. And therefore, governments alone or national level environmental ministries alone will not be able to solve all the challenges or to implement all the targets as expected…So, you can see even biodiversity, climate change is a primary loss of its loss and yet that same climate change depends on biodiversity as part of the solution. So, clearly the two are linked, cannot be separated, and this is what we are seeing more and more being spoken… Hear message.

  
  

• Elizabeth Mrema: Stockholm50 Enhancing Synergies between the Rio Conventions

  

  We just need to reflect thirty years ago when climate change convention, biodiversity convention, land degradation convention or to combat desertification rather were adopted. So while we are celebrating 50 years of the Human Environment Stockholm Conference, we are also celebrating 30 years this year of the three conventions. Yes, in 1992 they were negotiated as three different conventions but over the years and I think today probably I would like to hear anybody here who would say that if we are talking of solving climate change, we can solve climate change without dealing with the loss of biodiversity or without dealing with land degradation. So clearly now we are seeing these three planetary boundaries, they are intrinsically connected and actually solutions to one will have also contribute to the other and to the three all contributing to the achievements of the Sustainability Development Goals… Hear message.

  
  

• Ibrahim Thiaw: Stockholm50 Enhancing Synergies between the Rio Conventions

  

  In my childhood, when I wake up I do some fishing, I do some livestock stuff, I do some farming, I do some activities from my village. I do not see my day divided between the desertification convention, the biodiversity convention, or the climate convention. My day is integrated. I have some milk, I have some fish, I have some millet. My life is basically determined by how much I can generate from the one planet, from the one land that is mine. And that is really how I see the focal points of the three conventions and more conventions, working together as one family to generate the income that is necessary for them to live decently on this planet. We only have one planet. And this is not a slogan… Hear message.

  
  

• Inger Andersen: Remarks at Authors’ Meeting on the Seventh Global Environment Outlook 2023

  

  The aim now is to create a very different GEO from those that came before. Look, we all know the planet is in crisis because the science including previous years have told us in exhaustive details. We know that the triple planetary crisis, the crisis of climate change, nature, nature and biodiversity loss, and pollution and waste crisis are threatening to sweep humanity backwards. What we need to do now is to lay out exactly how to reverse this tide so that we can surge forwards in a world of equity and prosperity. The world already knows the many of the solutions to the challenges that the planet and humanity are facing: renewables, food system reform, energy efficiency, ecosystem restoration, and much, much more. Solutions can be found quickly and implemented to help build resilience to climate change, solutions that can kickstart the long-term system transformation that will wash us up on the shores of a net zero, nature positive, and resilient world. Yet to be honest we haven’t put these solutions into practice at a meaningful scale and speed…I also ask you why we have not made that progress that you know we should have made, to look at the barriers to transformation, to figure out how we tear them down… Hear message.

  
  

• Inger Andersen: UN Environment Finance Initiative Global Roundtable 2020 on Sustainable Finance

  

  In UNEP, we speak of the three planetary crises: the climate crisis, the nature crisis, and the pollution and waste crisis. And driven by decades of unsustainable production and consumption, these crises are destroying our natural systems upon which our economies and societies are built. We humans have altered over 75% of the terrestrial surface of our planet and we risk losing one million species on Earth. Climate change continues unabated. The science is clear and yet we remain unprepared when shocks associated with these crises occur. So, what do we need to do? We need to refresh our memories of the commitments that we have made around the world: to stabilize the climate, to protect the natural world, to stem pollution. And thereafter, we need to make very real and meaningful actions to meet the goals that we have agreed. Such meaningful action also means shifting gear in financial sector, altering investment flows away from unsustainable production and consumption patterns: no more financing of coal; deforestation-free food, fuel, and fiber; a regulatory environment that limits pollution and protection our environment and nature… Hear message.

  
  

• Marco Lambertini: Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) COP15 HLS Plenary Message 2021

  

  The evidence of our impact on the planet has never been greater. And so the awareness of the consequences not just on the natural world but on our lives, our society, our economy, our health. We need action and urgently. Science has never been clearer but we need action measured with the right ambition. That is why we need to embrace a global goal for nature like we have for climate. Global goal for nature, nature positive by 2030, so that by the end of the decade we have more nature than today not less: more forest, more fishes in the oceans and rivers, more pollinators in our countryside, more biodiversity worldwide. A global goal for nature, nature positive by 2030, that will unite government, businesses, and consumers to protect more at least 30% of land and sea, to restore more of what lost and degraded, and to drive to sustainable practices in key economic sectors that today are responsible for nature loss. Top of the list: agriculture, fishing, infrastructure, forestry, and extractive…. Hear message.

  
  

• Ovais Sarmad: Stockholm50 Enhancing Synergies between the Rio Conventions 2022

  

  We have 50 years since the Stockholm Declaration and 30 years since Rio Convention and there are several other numbers that float around, COP26 last year, 27 this year, 15 for the two conventions. All that what that means is all those number of years have passed since the recognition, the acknowledgment with the issue we are all trying to do deal with and not much has changed during that time in terms of the emergency, in terms of the urgency of addressing those three areas of environment: climate, biodiversity, and desertification, land degradation and so. All our conventions are linked, interlinked, interdependent. And we coordinate and work very, very closely with each other but not enough because there is still lot that needs to be done. And you have facilities like GEF that provides lots of impetus to provide that coordination. One very good example was recently at GEF6…is that taking the integrated approach and programming to breaking the silos and harnessing the maximum benefits of the three Rio conventions. And I think that is a very, very good example and more needs to be done in that regard… Hear message.

  
  

• Patricia Zurita: Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) COP15 HLS Plenary Speech

  

  We know, you know, nature is in crisis. The science is unequivocal. Our very survival is at risk as well as entire ecosystems and more than a million other species. The biodiversity and pandemic crisis are in deadly lockstep with the climate crisis. We all know and agree we need, we demand, a strong post-2020 global biodiversity framework. These must set and achieve clear, measurable milestones and targets to achieve the mission of being nature positive, that is, halting and reversing the loss of biodiversity by conserving and restoring it by 2030…Now must be the turning point where we stop trashing and destroying nature. Now is the moment to overwhelmingly redress our dangerous and violent relationship with the planet and demand from ourselves, our governments, and all players action not words. Many young people have a finely tuned ear for what they call blah blah blah. My daughters have an uncanny ability to see through our words. Let us prove them wrong. Prove to my daughters and your children and grandchildren that transformational change is not empty words but concrete and measurable action in our daily lives and our daily acts. Ambitions and aspirations alone will not save nature, will not reverse climate change, and will not prevent the next pandemic. Only action will… Hear message.

  
  

  
  

Thought Leaders and Influencers

• David Attenborough and Inger Andersen UNEP Interview 2022

  

  You know the United Nations, we are in a new era. The United Nations, without them, we will never solve the environmental crisis. The world has to get together. We are living in a new era in which nationalism is simply not enough. Nationalism…we must wave goodbye to it. We must feel we are all citizens of this one planet because unless we do we will not solve the problems…We know what the problems are and we know how to solve them. All we lack is unified action. These problems cannot be solved by one nation, no matter how big that one single nation is. The air we breathe was within hours ago across another continent. We are all one…The most evocative pictures you can present are pictures of animals. They are understood around the world. A picture with a gorilla with a baby moves the hearts of every single human being on this planet. And we now have the technical devices in which we can present these things so that people can see what fantastic riches the world has and we can explain how we depend on them, how we are part of them, and that when we are saving them, we are saving ourselves… Hear message.

  
  

• David Attenborough: UNFCCC COP26 Speech 2021

  

  …A new industrial revolution powered by a million sustainable innovations is essential and is indeed already beginning. We will all share in the benefits: affordable clean energy, healthier and enough food to sustain us all. Nature is a key ally. Wherever we restore the wild, it will recapture carbon and help us bring back balance to our planet. And as we work to build a better world, we must acknowledge no nation has completed its development because no advanced nation is yet sustainable. All have a journey still to compete so that all nations have a good standard of living and modest footprint…We are a force powerful enough to destabilize our planet. Surely, working together we are powerful enough to save it. In my lifetime I have witnessed a terrible decline. In yours, you could and should witness a wonderful recovery… Hear message.

  
  

• Jane Goodall: Message for Earth Day 2022

  

  Hello, today is Earth Day. It’s a day to think about the planet, Mother Earth. I am sure that all of you have seen photos of planet Earth shot from space: a small green and blue globe surrounded by the cold black immensity of space. What is so wonderful about this little planet of ours is that during the millions of years of evolution it supports such a rich variety of lifeforms from microscopic bacteria and algae to whales and elephants and the giant redwoods. There are some species that live in the Earth such as earthworms and naked mole rats, others that fly like butterflies and beetles and birds and bats. Some spend all or almost all their time in trees like sloths and galegos and spider monkeys. Some move ever so slowly across the land like tortoises while others like cheetahs can run really fast. Then there are all those who spend their entire lives in the water: the corals and fish and whales, while others like otters and penguins spend time on land but are really good swimmers. Then think about the hundreds and thousands of plants and trees and fungi and ferns. What an amazing tapestry of living things! We humans are just one species but oh dear our footprint on the planet is gigantic… Hear message.

  
  

• Jane Goodall: Message for Earth Day 2021

  

  Earth Day 2021. It should be a day to celebrate the existence of planet Earth with is amazing diversity of plants and animal species, its beautiful forests, oceans, rivers, wetlands, and prairies, and all of its wonderful habitats -a small green and blue sphere circling the sun…So, Earth Day is a day to reflect not only on the wonders of our planet but also the harm we humans have inflicted on it…I was somewhere in space looking down on my sister Earth so threatened by human activities. The waves of the sea seemed to be asking me to clean the water from the pollution and plastic, and the fish wanted to be saved from huge drift nets, and all the animals of the ocean were desperate for a way to escape the non-stop terrible sonar noise. It was making their lives unbearable. The trees were reaching towards me with their branches even as giant machines were slicing through their living trunks and the forest were weeping with tears of sap, begging to be saved. The tall golden grass of one of the small remaining patches of prairies were sighing in the wind and everywhere the animals were reaching towards me, frogs and water birds pleaded as their homes were relentlessly drained for yet another industrial complex. Elephants and rhinos, lions and tigers, pangolins, bears, and sharks cried out as they were killed for their tusks and horns and scales, bile and fins… Hear message.

  
  

  
  

Scientists and Experts

• Hans-Otto Pörtner: IPBES-IPCC Workshop on Biodiversity and Climate Change

  

  Climate change and biodiversity loss are indeed two of the biggest challenges of the Anthropocene. At the same time, they are interconnected…they are under the same problem of human interference in how the planet functions. And they are interdependent as climate influences biodiversity and vice versa. So from a scientific point of view, it is therefore key to bring climate and biodiversity together. It is beneficial also to bring them together at the political level and to design solution policies based on synergies between the two…human well-being depends on solving these issues… Hear message.

  
  

• Ivar Baste: Ask a Scientist 2021

  

  So what is the most important environmental issue? Well actually, the most important environmental issue is that we have to transform our relationship with nature so that we address the climate crisis, the biodiversity crisis, and the pollution and waste crisis. So we are on track to a global warming of 3 degrees within this century, that is quite disastrous actually, 1 million of 8 million plants and animal species are at risk of extinction. We really depend on them and is also a senseless thing to move towards. Finally, on pollution 9 million lives every year are lost prematurely to air pollution, water pollution and toxic substances. And besides are waters and oceans are choking with plastic. So these are interrelated crisis actually, reinforcing each other and a result of same underlying driver which is the tremendous expansion of human activities over the last century… Hear message.

  
  

• Johan Rockström: Nature Positive for a Net Zero Future 2022

  

  This is to give you the scientific update on why action on climate change requires also investments in a massive scale in nature positive which includes multiple benefits for biodiversity, climate stability, and the planetary resilience. We are today in the midst of the Anthropocene, a geological epoch where we are now the dominating force of change on the entire planet. We know that this is playing out in four interconnected crises. We are all talking about the climate crisis. We are in the tail end, hopefully, of the COVID-19 crisis, a pandemic that originates from unsustainable exploitation of nature habitats with a zoonosis that spills over from wildlife via domestic animals to humans. We have the Ukraine geopolitical instability in the world. We are also having the ecological crisis and this is a crisis today of massive scale. We are in the sixth mass extinction of species. The intergovernmental platform on biodiversity and ecosystem services concludes the drama: we are at risk o losing 1 million of 8 million known species; 70% of the populations of animal species have been lost in one generation since 1970. We are undermining the functions in the Earth System that can provide good lives, well-being, and development for humanity… Hear message.

  
  

• Partha Dasgupta: Economic Value of Nature 2022

  

  It is the beauty the drew me first. All around you are these nature’s factories: the birds that go pollinate, squirrels taking nuts and burying them, and all the things that are under our ground. This bewildering tapestry of things that are happening, many of which are unobservable, invisible, and yet they are making the atmosphere in which we humans can survive but nature does not appear in economics. Let’s make that quite clear…When you read economic forecasts they talk about investments in factories and employment rates, GDP growth. They never mention what is happening in the ecosystems. So, I tried to reconstruct economics by placing the human economy as embedded in nature. My intention is on the productivity of nature and showing how economic possibilities are entirely dependent on this finite entity we call nature. Global demand for nature’s goods and services exceed nature’s ability to supply them on a sustainable basis…GDP will not count that destruction. You can have a growing GDP but put huge pressure on the biosphere, leading to biodiversity loss, climate change… Hear message.

  
  

• Robert Scholes: IPBES-IPCC Workshop on Biodiversity and Climate Change

  

  Like him and many of the other participants, I’ve worked on both sides of the climate and biodiversity fence and now I am especially enthusiastic about working to make sure that the fence in fact disappears and we have one seamless message…The meeting report…will provide a very important input into ongoing and future assessments by both IPCC and IPBES. This will then inform policy and provide science-based evidence and options how to develop solutions that keep both areas in mind and avoid maladaptation where one issue may benefit at the expense of the other. This is particularly important within the context of risk management within an uncertain future environment… Hear message.

  
  

• Robert Watson: Climate Change and Biodiversity Loss Talk 2019

  

  We humans are destroying biodiversity. We are degrading our ecosystems. We’re causing land degradation and we are changing the Earth’s climate. These are not just environmental issues. They are development issues, they are economic issues, they are social, security, and ethical issues. And this is what we have to get across to people. They really are fundamental to human well-being whether you are in a rich country or a poor country. And unfortunately, most of the problems being caused by the rich countries and the people most adversely affected are poor people in developing countries. There are 20 or so-called biodiversity Aichi targets…they will not be met by most countries in most parts of the world. The 1.5 to 2 degree target of the Paris Agreement will not be met not with the current pledges anyway. And the time for action is clearly now and in fact the time for action was ten years ago, twenty years ago, and thirty years ago. And the message is a whole bunch of big environmental assessments. There’s GEO6 run by UNEP. There’s Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. There’s IPBES. And we are all saying the same things. We need rapid, transformative changes across the world if we are going to deal with climate, loss of biodiversity, and land degradation. And if we don’t deal with them, we will not meet most of the UN Sustainability Goals…. Hear message.

  
  

• Sandra Diaz: GGBC Annual Biodiversity Lecture 2020

  

  I will start with our most fundamental message and that message is: nature and the contributions it provides are fundamental to all people around the world. People no matter who they are, no matter where they are, are sustained inextricably and interwoven with the fabric of life. We refer to this fabric of life simply as nature all the way from the most pristine and remote forest to your garden. Nature provides materials for fetals, physical and cultural continuity and underpins all dimensions of human health, and support identity. Nature is the basis for our images and our stories. We are not truly ourselves without nature. And many of these contributions are not satisfactorily replaceable by human assets. But paradoxically, there is now incontestable evidence that nature and many its present contributions to human quality of life and its capacity to continue providing such benefits in the future are deteriorating fast worldwide. It’s true that more food and energy and raw materials than ever before are now being supplied to people across distant regions. But this comes at a price. Globally, since the 70s, out of 18 general categories of nature’s contributions to people assessed by IPBES, 14 have declined. This means that the increases in production and associated waste are undermining nature’s capacity to regulate processes and regenerate itself, the capacity of nature to provide non-material contributions to people, and increasingly ensure nature’s ability to provide all contributions in the future including materials ones… Hear message.

  
  

• Sandra Diaz: Think Globally, Act Locally Conversation 2022

  

  People often ask me how do I rate the biodiversity crisis as compared to the climate change crisis and the poverty and inequality crisis? I think people like this question because they see biodiversity as the animals and plants are quite separate from us. From science tells us that living nature is much more than an inventory of species. Living nature as you say is the fabric of life, the living fabric of the planet, the interrelated in which all the living including us humans are interwoven. And this living fabric is the essential to functioning of planet and to human well-being. Unfortunately, we have now incontestable evidence that the living fabric of the Earth is being unraveled fast. And the ultimate reason why this is happening is the present dominant model of appropriating nature, doing business, and relating to each other. So, runaway climate change, massive biodiversity loss, and intolerable social and environmental inequalities among people are simply the three most serious symptoms of same root problem. Therefore, they cannot be an appropriate solution for these three existential challenges without tackling them together in a coordinated way and without realizing that the living fabric of the Earth is at the core of the three challenges… Hear message.

  
  

• Will Stefan: Planetary Boundaries 2022 Update

  

  But we tend to forget we are transforming the biosphere directly just as much and perhaps even more than we are transforming the climate. There was a big equivalent study…published in 2019, the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services. They came up with a number of very important conclusions from this very exhaustive study. Here are the most important. Nature is now declining at rates unprecedented in human history. About 1 million animal and plant species, that’s out of a total of about 8 or 9 animal and plant species, are now threatened with extinction. In other words, we have now entered the Sixth Great Mass Extinction event in the history of Earth. And they sum it up by the web of life on Earth on which we all depend are getting smaller and increasingly frayed… Hear message.

  
  

• Will Steffan: On Sustainability 2012

  

  When people talk about sustainability, it is very common to hear the three pillars that is: economic, social, and environmental. And again, this goes back to our earlier conversation about trade-offs. People say well maybe we have to trade off some environmental value because we need to develop economically or maybe we maybe we need to not develop economically here because it is too damaging to biodiversity and environment so we have to trade them off. What we did when we looked at the planetary boundaries in particular and may also work at other scales is that they are not three equal pillars that you trade off. It is in fact what we call a nested hierarchy. Think of three circles one inside the other one. The big circle on the outside is the environment. And if you don’t think that is important, think about how you are going to try to live when the environment really goes bad if we lose oxygen in the atmosphere, if we have a climate that isn’t stable, if we can’t derive ecosystem services because we lost too much biodiversity. So I like to tell people don’t use the word environment, use the word life-support system because that is what it is. We are dependent on it for our very existence… Hear message.

  
  

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Read, cite, and share quotes from major reports regarding biodiversity loss.

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State of Finance for Nature (2022)

Most of humanity has historically fought against nature, draining wetlands, razing forests for urban development, canalising rivers and introducing monocultures with heavy use of fertilisers and pesticides. The future will have to look fundamentally different by working with nature if we are to reverse the severe loss of biodiversity, tackle the climate crisis and restore a billion hectares of healthy ecosystems that have been lost over the last few decades.

With sufficient finance, nature-based solutions (NbS) provide the means to cost-effectively reach climate, biodiversity and land degradation neutrality targets, particularly if investments simultaneously contribute to biodiversity, climate and restoration targets. This “double” or “triple” win potential is particularly alluring given the current economic situation.

Delayed action is no longer an option in the face of the devastating effects of climate change, the extinction crisis and severe land degradation globally. Politicians, business and finance leaders and citizens globally must transform their relationship with nature to work with it rather than against it.

If we rapidly double finance flows to NbS, we can halt biodiversity loss (measured through the Biodiversity Intactness Index below), significantly contribute to reducing emissions (5 GtCO2/year by 2025 further rising to 15 GtCO2/year by 2050 in the 1.5°C scenario) and restore close to 1 billion ha of degraded land.

Private sector investment in NbS must increase by several orders of magnitude in the coming years from the current US$26 billion per year, which represents only 17 per cent of total NbS investment.

Government expenditure on environmentally harmful subsidies to fisheries, agriculture and fossil fuels is estimated at US$500 billion to 1 trillion per year, which is three to seven times greater than public and private investments in NbS. These flows severely undermine efforts to achieve critical environmental targets.

Investment in marine NbS constitutes only 9 per cent of total investment in NbS, which is very low given the role of theoceans in climate mitigation and supporting adaptation, food security and biodiversity conservation.

Governments need to lock in critical targets on biodiversity loss, take urgent action to raise ambition and implement emissions reduction targets in line with the Paris Agreement and action land restoration commitments. These targets must be underpinned by broad based resource mobilisation from all sources. Public and private actors need to mobilise the necessary finance and close the finance gap while governments anchor targets in national regulation/legislation.

Increase direct finance flows to NbS through public domestic expenditure, nature-focused Official Development Assistance (ODA), ensuring that multilateral development banks (MDBs) and development finance institutions (DFIs) prioritise green finance, and providing regulation and incentives for private sector investment, particularly in nature markets and sustainable supply chains.

Companies in the real economy and financial institutions need to transition to “net zero, net positive” and equitable business models in a time-bound manner with short-term targets.

Public and private sector efforts to scale up NbS investments need to integrate just transition principles, safeguarding human rights. This includes providing social protection, land rights and decent working conditions and the participation of local and indigenous communities, including women and otherm arginalised and vulnerable groups.

Citation

United Nations Environment Programme (2022). State of Finance for Nature. Time to act:Doubling investment by 2025 and eliminating nature-negative finance flows. Nairobi. https://wedocs.unep.org/20.500.11822/41333

World Wildlife Fund Living Planet Report (2022)

Today we face the double, interlinked emergencies of human-induced climate change and the loss of biodiversity, threatening the well-being of current and future generations. As our future is critically dependent on biodiversity and a stable climate, it is essential that we understand how nature’s decline and climate change are connected.

Land-use change is still the biggest current threat to nature, destroying or fragmenting the natural habitats of many plant and animal species on land, in freshwater and in the sea. However, if we are unable to limit warming to 1.5°C, climate change is likely to become the dominant cause of biodiversity loss in the coming decades.

Tracking the health of nature over almost 50 years, the Living Planet Index acts as an early warning indicator by tracking trends in the abundance of mammals, fish, reptiles, birds and amphibians around the world. In its most comprehensive finding to date, this edition shows an average 69% decline in the relative abundance of monitored wildlife populations around the world between 1970 and 2018.

Latin America shows the greatest regional decline in average population abundance (94%), while freshwater species populations have seen the greatest overall global decline (83%).

We know that transformational change – game-changing shifts– will be essential to put theory into practice. We need system-wide changes in how we produce and consume, the technology we use, and our economic and financial systems. Underpinning these changes must be a move from goals and targets to values and rights, in policy-making and in day-to-day life.

A nature-positive future needs transformative - game changing - shifts in how we produce, how we consume, how we govern, and what we finance.

Achieving net-zero loss for nature is certainly not enough; we need a nature- or net-positive goal to restore nature and not simply halt its loss. Firstly, because we have lost and continue to lose so much nature at such a speed that we need this higher ambition.

Climate change and biodiversity loss are not only environmental issues, but economic, development, security, social, moral and ethical issues too – and they must therefore be addressed together along with the 17 UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

Climate change and biodiversity loss are not only environmental issues, but economic, development, security, social, moraland ethical issues too.

Unless we conserve and restore biodiversity, and limit human-induced climate change, almost none of the [17 UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)] can be achieved – in particular food and water security, good health for everyone, poverty alleviation, and a more equitable world.

Everyone has a role to play in addressing these emergencies; and most now acknowledge that transformations aren eeded. This recognition now needs to be turned into action.

Human-driven global warming is changing the natural world, driving mass mortality events as well as the first extinctions of entire species. Every degree of warming is expected to increase these losses and the impact they have on people.

Warming is also changing how ecosystems function, putting into motion ecological processes that, themselves, in time cause more warming: this process is called a ‘positive climate feedback’.

Increases in wildfires, trees dying due to drought and insectoutbreaks, peatlands drying and tundra permafrost thawing, all release more CO₂ as dead plant material decomposes or is burned. This is starting to transform systems that have historically been solid carbon sinks into new carbon sources.

Once these ecological processes reach a tipping point they will become irreversible and commit our planet to continue warming at a very high rate.

Forests are critical for stabilising our climate, but deforestation threatens this vital function as well as other ecosystem services including buffering against the impact of heatwaves, and providing freshwater to agricultural lands.

Ecological connectivity is severely threatened by the destruction and degradation of nature that fragments habitats. To counter this, connectivity conservation is rapidly emerging as a solution to restore the movement of species and the flow of natural processes.

Around the globe, it is clear that leaders in dominant societies have failed to control the human activities driving climate change and habitat loss, while Indigenous lands and waters have been successfully taken care of over millennia 80 . In Canada, Brazil and Australia, for instance, vertebrate biodiversity in Indigenous territories equals or surpasses that found within formally protected areas.

Indigenous approaches to conservation regularly place reciprocal people-place relationships at the centre of cultural and care practices. These approaches hinge on systems of Indigenous knowledge which include scientific and ecological understandings that are carried across generations through language, story, ceremony, practice and law.

With a fundamental, system-wide reorganisation across technological, economic and social factors, including paradigms, goals and values, there might still be a chance that we can reverse the trend of nature’s decline.

Economics, at its core, is the study of how people make choices under conditions of scarcity, and of the consequences of those choices for society. Simply put, we need to move to an economy that values well-being in its diverse forms, not only monetary, and one which is fully responsive to resource scarcity.

A global goal of reversing biodiversity loss to secure a nature-positive world by 2030 is necessary if we are to turn the tide on nature loss and safeguard the natural world for current and future generations. It must be our guiding star, in the same way that the goal of limiting global warming to 2°C, and preferably 1.5°C, guides our efforts on climate.

Recognition of the integrated nature of our environmental challenges in turn enables the search for win-win solutions. Again, the science is clear: immediate action to reverse biodiversity loss is essential if we are to succeed in limiting climate change to 1.5°C; and climate change is expected to become a dominant driver of biodiversity loss if left unchecked.

It will only be through identifying and pursuing solutions that tackle these connected challenges while also benefiting people that we will be able to course-correct and secure a healthier natural world, to help achieve the Sustainable Development Goals.

Citation

WWF (2022) Living Planet Report 2022 - Building a nature-positive society. Almond, R.E.A., Grooten, M., Juffe Bignoli, D. & Petersen, T. (Eds). WWF, Gland, Switzerland.

UNCCD: Global Land Outlook (2022)

Land resources – soil, water, and biodiversity – provide the foundation for the wealth ofour societies and economies. They meet the growing needs and desires for food, water,fuel, and other raw materials that shape our livelihoods and lifestyles. However, theway we currently manage and use these natural resources is threatening the health andcontinued survival of many species on Earth, including our own.

Of nine planetary boundaries used to define a ‘safe operating space for humanity’, fourhave already been exceeded: climate change, biodiversity loss, land use change, and geochemical cycles. These breaches are directly linked to human-induced desertification, land degradation, and drought. If current trends persist, the risk of widespread, abrupt, or irreversible environmental changes will grow.

Tracking the health of nature over almost 50 years, the Living Planet Index acts as an early warning indicator by tracking trends in the abundance of mammals, fish, reptiles, birds and amphibians around the world. In its most comprehensive finding to date, this edition shows an average 69% decline in the relative abundance of monitored wildlife populations around the world between 1970 and 2018.

Roughly USD 44 trillion of economic output – more than half of global annual GDP– is moderately or highly reliant on natural capital. Yet governments, markets, and societies rarely account for the true value of all nature’s services that underpin human and environmental health. These include climate and water regulation, disease and pest control, waste decomposition and air purification, as well as recreation and cultural amenities.

Conserving, restoring, andusing our land resources sustainably is a global imperative: one that requires moving to acrisis footing.

At no other point in modern history has humanity faced such an array of familiar and unfamiliar risks and hazards, interacting in a hyper-connected and rapidly changing world. We cannot afford to underestimate the scale and impact of these existential threats. Rather we must work to motivate and enable all stakeholders to go beyond existing development and business models to activate a restorative agenda for people, nature, and the climate.

Land restoration is essential and urgently needed. It must be integrated with allied measures to meet future energy needs while drastically reducing greenhouse gasemissions; address food insecurity and water scarcity while shifting to more sustainable production and consumption; and accelerate a transition to a regenerative, circular economy that reduces waste and pollution.

Restoration is a proven and cost-effective solution to help reverse climate change and biodiversity loss caused by the rapid depletion of our finite natural capital stocks.

Land restoration is broadly understood as a continuum of sustainable land and water management practices that can be applied to conserve or ‘rewild’ natural areas, ‘up-scale’ nature-positive food production in rural landscapes, and ‘green’ urban areas, infrastructure, and supply chains.

The land restoration agenda is a multiple benefits strategy that reverses past land and ecosystem degradation while creating opportunities that improve livelihoods and prepareus for future challenges.

Land is the operative link between biodiversity loss and climate change, and therefore must be the primary focus of any meaningful intervention to tackle these intertwined crises. Restoring degraded land and soil provides the most fertile ground on which to take immediate and concerted action.

Land and ecosystem restoration will help slow global warming, reduce the risk, scale, frequency, and intensity of disasters (e.g., pandemics, drought, floods), and facilitate the recovery of critical biodiversity habitat and ecological connectivity to avoid extinctions and restore the unimpeded movement of species and the flow of natural processes that sustain life on Earth.

Restoration is needed in the right places and at the right scales to better manage interconnected global emergencies. Responsible governance and land use planning will be key to protecting healthy and productive land and recuperating biodiverse, carbon-rich ecosystems to avoid dangerous tipping points.

Modern agriculture has altered the face of the planet more than any other human activity– from the production of food, animal feed, and other commodities to the marketsand supply chains that connect producers to consumers.

Making our food systems sustainable and resilient would be a significant contribution to the success of the global land, biodiversity, and climate agendas.

Globally, food systems are responsible for 80% of deforestation, 70% of freshwater use, and are the single greatest cause of terrestrial biodiversity loss.

At the same time, soil health and biodiversity below ground – the source of almost all our food calories – has been largely neglected by the industrial agricultural revolution of the last century.

Intensive monocultures and the destruction of forests and other ecosystems for food and commodity production generate the bulk of carbon emissions associated with land use change. Nitrous oxides from fertilizer use and methane emitted by ruminant livestock comprise the largest and most potent share of agricultural greenhouse gas emissions

Top-down solutions to avoid or reduce land degradation and water scarcity are unlikely to succeed without bottom-up stakeholder engagement and the security of land tenure and resource rights.

At the same time, trusted institutions and networks are needed tohelp build bridges that bring together different forms of capital to restore land health and create dignified jobs.

More inclusive and responsible governance can facilitate the shift to sustainable land use and management practices by building human and social capital.

Increased transparency and accountability are prerequisites for integrated land use planning and other administrative tools that can help deliver multiple benefits at various scales while managing competing demands.

Redirecting public spending towards regenerative land management solutions offers a significant opportunity to align private sector investment with longer-term societal goals– not only for food, fuel, and raw materials, but also for green and blue infrastructure for drought and flood mitigation, renewable energy provision, biodiversity conservation, and water and waste recycling.

Territorial and landscape approaches can leverage public and private financing for large-scale or multi-sector restoration initiatives by allowing diverse groups of stakeholders to establish partnerships that pool resources, aggregate project activities, and share costs. These collaborative approaches will make land restoration initiatives more effective and attractive to donors and investors.

The stark implications of the business-as-usual scenario means that decisive action at all levels and from all actors is needed to realize the promise of the restoration scenarios contained in this Outlook.

What is clear and unequivocal is the need for coordinated measures to meaningfully slow or reverse climate change, land degradation, and biodiversity loss to safeguard human health and livelihoods, ensure food and water security, and leave a sustainable legacy for future generations.

Ambitious land restoration targets must be backed by clear action plans and sustained financing. Countries that are disproportionately responsible for the climate, biodiversity, and environmental crises must do more to support developing countries as they restoretheir land resources and make these activities central to building healthier and more resilient societies.

The UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration is galvanizing indigenous peoples and local communities, governments, the private sector, and civil society as part of a global movement to undertake all types of restoration, across all scales, marshalling all possible resources. This powerful 10-year ambition aims to transform land and water management practices to meet the demands of the 21st century while eradicating poverty, hunger, and malnutrition.

Citation

United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification, 2022. The Global Land Outlook,second edition. UNCCD, Bonn.

UNEP: Becoming #GenerationRestoration (2021)

Countries need to deliver on their existing commitments to restore 1 billion hectares of degraded land and make similar commitments for marine and coastal areas.

The world’s ecosystems – from oceans to forests to farmlands – are being degraded, in many cases at an accelerating rate. People living in poverty, women, indigenous peoples and other marginalized groups bear the brunt of this damage, and the COVID-19 pandemic has only worsened existing inequalities.

While the causes of degradation are various and complex, one thing is clear: the massive economic growth of recent decades has come at the cost of ecological health.

Ecosystem restoration is needed on a large scale in order to achieve the sustainable development agenda.

The conservation of healthy ecosystems – while vitally important – is now not enough. We are using the equivalent of 1.6 Earths to maintain our current way of life, and ecosystems cannot keep up with our demands. Simply put, we need more nature.

Half of the world’s GDP is dependent on nature, and every dollar invested in restoration creates up to USD 30 dollars in economic benefits.

Restoring productive ecosystems is essential to supporting food security. Restoration through agroforestry alone has the potential to increase food security for 1.3 billion people. Restoring the populations of marine fish to deliver a maximum sustainable yield could increase fisheries production by 16.5 million tonnes, an annual value of USD 32 billion.

Actions that prevent, halt and reverse degradation are needed if we are to keep global temperatures below 2°C. Such actions can deliver one-third of the mitigation that is needed by 2030. This could involve action to better manage some 2.5 billion hectares of forest, crop and grazing land (through restoration and avoiding degradation) and restoration of natural cover over 230 million hectares.

Large-scale investments in dryland agriculture, mangrove protection and water management will make a vital contribution to building resilience to climate change, generating benefits around four times the original investment.

With careful planning, restoring 15 per cent of converted lands while stopping further conversion of natural ecosystems could avoid 60 per cent of expected species extinctions.

Adopting inclusive wealth as a more accurate measure of economic progress. This will rest on the widespread introduction of natural capital accounting.

Increasing the amount of finance for restoration, including through the elimination of perverse subsidies that incentivize further degradation and fuel climate change, and through initiatives to raise awareness of the risks posed by ecosystem degradation

Taking action on food waste, making more efficient use of agricultural land, and encouraging a shift to a more plant-based diet.

Expanding awareness of the importance of healthy ecosystems throughout our educational systems.

The restoration of ecosystems at scale is no small task, and it will take a concerted effort to truly restore the planet. The UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration aims to catalyse a global movement among local communities, activists, women, youth, indigenous groups, private companies, financial investors, researchers and governments at all levels.

Citation

United Nations Environment Programme (2021). Becoming #GenerationRestoration: Ecosystem restoration for people, nature and climate. Nairobi.

IPBES-IPCC Biodiversity and Climate Change Workshop Report (2021)

Climate change and biodiversity loss are two of the most pressing issues of the Anthropocene. While there is recognition in both scientific and policy-making circles that the two are interconnected, in practice they are largely addressed in their own domains.

Each issue has its own international Convention (the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Convention on Biological Diversity), and each has an intergovernmental body which assesses available knowledge (the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and the Intergovernmental Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES)). This functional separation creates a risk of incompletely identifying, understanding and dealing with the connections between the two.

Increasing energy consumption, overexploitation of natural resources and unprecedented transformation of land-, freshwater- and seascapes over the past 150 years have paralleled technological advances and supported better living standards for many but have also led to changes in climate and the accelerating decline of biological diversity worldwide, both negatively impacting many aspects of good quality of life.

To be holistically effective, renewable energy development will benefit from consideration of a circular economy and, ultimately, biodiversity

The mutual reinforcing of climate change and biodiversity loss means that satisfactorily resolving either issue requires consideration of the other.

These interactions can generate complex feedbacks between climate, biodiversity and humans that may produce more pronounced and less predictable outcomes. Ignoring the inseparable nature of climate, biodiversity, and human quality of life will result in non-optimal solutions to either crisis.

Previous policies have largely tackled the problems of climate change and biodiversity loss independently. Policies that simultaneously address synergies between mitigating biodiversity loss and climate change, while also considering their societal impacts, offer the opportunity to maximize co-benefits and help meet development aspirations for all.

Cross-cutting issues, intersectoral policies and regulatory frameworks are areas where strong synergies could contribute to the transformative societal change that is needed to achieve ambitious goals for biodiversity, climate mitigation and good quality of life.

In a world increasingly affected by climate change, maintaining biodiversity relies on enhanced and well-targeted conservation efforts, coordinated with and supported by strong adaptation and innovation efforts.

A new conservation paradigm would address the simultaneous objectives of a habitable climate, self-sustaining biodiversity, and a good quality of life for all.

Nature-based solutions (NbS) can play an important role in climate mitigation, but the extent is debated, and they can only be effective with ambitious reductions in all human-caused greenhouse gas emissions. Nature-based solutions can be most effective when planned for longevity and not narrowly focussed on rapid carbon sequestration.

Avoiding and reversing the loss and degradation of carbon- and species-rich ecosystems on land and in the ocean is of highest importance for combined biodiversity protection and climate change mitigation actions with large adaptation co-benefits.

Sustainable agricultural and forestry practices can improve adaptive capacity, enhance biodiversity, increase carbon storage in farmland and forest soils and vegetation, and reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

The creation of green infrastructure in cities is increasingly being used for climate change adaptation and restoration of biodiversity with climate mitigation co-benefits.

In both land and marine systems, options exist to combine nature-based and technology-based measures for climate change mitigation and adaptation, while contributing to biodiversity.

It is important that the full climate consequences of land-based climate mitigation actions, in both the short and long-term are considered when evaluating their contribution.

Planting bioenergy crops (including trees, perennial grasses or annual crops) in monocultures over a very large share of total land area is detrimental to ecosystems, reduces supply of many other nature’s contributions to people and impedes achievement of numerous Sustainable Development Goals.

Afforestation, which involves planting trees in ecosystems that have not historically been forests, and reforestation with monocultures, especially with exotic tree species, can contribute to climate change mitigation but are often detrimental to biodiversity and do not have clear benefits for adaptation.

Technology-based measures that are effective for climate change mitigation can pose serious threats to biodiversity.

Measures intended to facilitate adaptation to one aspect of climate change without considering other aspects of sustainability may in practice be maladaptive and result in unforeseen detrimental outcomes.

Measures narrowly focusing on protection and restoration of biodiversity have generally important knock-on benefits for climate change mitigation, but those benefits may be sub-optimal compared to measures that account for both biodiversity and climate.

Changes in per capita consumption, shift in diets, and progress towards sustainable exploitation of natural resources, including reduced post-harvest waste, could make substantial contributions to addressing the biodiversity crisis, climate change mitigation and adaptation.

Treating climate, biodiversity and human society as coupled systems is key to successful outcomes from policy interventions.

The explicit consideration of the interactions between biodiversity, climate and society in policy decisions provides opportunities to maximize co-benefits and to minimize trade-offs and co-detrimental (mutually harmful) effects for people and nature.

When considering biodiversity-climate-society interactions, it is important to examine how the linkages between policy decisions and consequences unfold over time and how they act beyond the specific spatial context.

Assessing the range of viable solutions (‘solution space’) to achieve the intended climate mitigation, adaptation and biodiversity conservation outcomes, while positively contributing to people’s quality of life, requires recognition of differences in social-ecological contexts.

Transformative change in governance of socio-ecological systems can help create climate and biodiversity resilient development pathways.

Existing governance systems often lack effective mechanisms to improve integration between climate and biodiversity, and between international and national to subnational scales.

Overall, mainstreaming of biodiversity into climate policy and vice versa, and of both into initiatives to advance human development and good quality of life, remains limited at many scales and in many sectors, although there are some promising initiatives emerging, such as jurisdictional approaches, experimental policy mixes, and rights-based approaches.

A key outcome for successfully integrated governance of climate, biodiversity and good quality of life will be to help identify solutions for stewardship that deliver the highest co-benefits while avoiding trade-offs.

Multi-actor and multi-scale governance are appropriate approaches to the management of multifunctional ‘scapes’ at different scales.

The imperative for rapid action on both climate change and biodiversity loss argues for governance models to move beyond state-based approaches to embrace more collaborative solutions.

Transformative change can occur using leverage points in socio-ecological systems which alter future trajectories. Critical leverage points include exploring alternative visions of good quality of life, rethinking consumption and waste, shifting values related to the human-nature relationship, reducing inequalities, and promoting education and learning.

Better tools for multi-sectoral scenario planning and modelling can help map pathways to simultaneously achieve the goals in the SDGs, the Paris Agreement and the post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework in the medium and long term.

Achieving the scale and scope of transformative change needed to meet the goals of the UNFCCC and CBD and the Sustainable Development Goals relies on rapid and far-reaching actions of a type never before attempted.

It includes new integrative agendas aligning all actors, private to public, in support of actions to protect biodiversity, reduce the impacts of climate change, and achieve sustainable development.

Transformative change elements identified can include effective incentives and capacity-building, improved cooperation across sectors and jurisdictions, anticipatory and pre-emptive actions, inclusive and adaptive decision-making, and strengthened environmental policy and implementation.

Citation

Pörtner, H.O., Scholes, R.J., Agard, J., Archer, E., Arneth, A., Bai, X., Barnes, D., Burrows, M., Chan, L., Cheung, W.L., Diamond, S., Donatti, C., Duarte, C., Eisenhauer, N., Foden, W., Gasalla, M. A., Handa, C., Hickler, T., Hoegh-Guldberg, O., Ichii, K., Jacob, U., Insarov, G., Kiessling, W., Leadley, P., Leemans, R., Levin, L., Lim, M., Maharaj, S., Managi, S., Marquet, P. A., McElwee, P., Midgley, G., Oberdorff, T., Obura, D., Osman, E., Pandit, R., Pascual, U., Pires, A. P. F., Popp, A., Reyes-García, V., Sankaran, M., Settele, J., Shin, Y. J., Sintayehu, D. W., Smith, P., Steiner, N., Strassburg, B., Sukumar, R., Trisos, C., Val, A.L., Wu, J., Aldrian, E., Parmesan, C., Pichs-Madruga, R., Roberts, D.C., Rogers, A.D., Díaz, S., Fischer, M., Hashimoto, S., Lavorel, S., Wu, N., Ngo, H.T. 2021. IPBES-IPCC co-sponsored workshop report on biodiversity and climate change; IPBES and IPCC, DOI:10.5281/zenodo.4782538

UNEP Making Peace with Nature (2021)

Humanity’s environmental challenges have grown in number and severity ever since the Stockholm Conference in 1972 and now represent a planetary emergency.

Earth’s environmental emergencies and human well-being need to be addressed together to achieve sustainability. The development of the goals, targets, commitments and mechanisms under the key environmental conventions and their implementation need to be aligned to become more synergistic and effective.

The economic, financial and productive systems can and should be transformed to lead and power the shift to sustainability. Society needs to include natural capital in decision-making, eliminate environmentally harmful subsidies and invest in the transition to a sustainable future.

Everyone has a role to play in ensuring that human knowledge, ingenuity, technology and cooperation are redeployed from transforming nature to transforming humankind‘s relationship with nature. Polycentric governance is key to empowering people to express themselves and act environmentally responsibly without undue difficulty or self-sacrifice.

Human well-being critically depends on the Earth’s natural systems. Yet the economic, technological and social advances have also led to a reduction of the Earth’s capacity to sustain current and future human well-being. Human prosperity relies on the wise use of the planet’s finite space and remaining resources, as well as on the protection and restoration of its life-supporting processes and capacity to absorb waste.

Over the last 50 years, the global economy has grown nearly fivefold, due largely to a tripling in extraction of natural resources and energy that has fuelled growth in production and consumption.

The increasingly unequal and resource-intensive model of development drives environmental decline through climate change, biodiversity loss and other forms of pollution and resource degradation.

The international community has set targets, informed by science, in multi-lateral agreements for protecting natural assets and limiting harmful environmental change. Despite some progress, efforts to date have failed to meet any of the agreed targets.

Economic and financial systems fail to account for the essential benefits that humanity gets from nature and to provide incentives to manage nature wisely and maintain its value.

Climate change, loss of biodiversity, land degradation, and accumulating chemicals and waste reinforce each other and are caused by the same indirect drivers.

As a result of the loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services, nature’s ability to support human health through regulation of air and water quality is in decline in many places, as well as its ability to provide opportunities for recreation and relaxation, which support physical and mental health and well-being. biodiversity loss is also negatively affecting nature’s ability to supply medicines.

Global warming of more than 2°C combined with continued loss of biodiversity and increasing pollution will likely have dire consequences for humanity.

Decades of incremental efforts have not stemmed the environmental decline resulting from an expansive development model because vested and short-term interests often prevail.

Only system-wide transformation will enable humanity to achieve well-being for all within the Earth’s finite capacity to provide resources and absorb human waste. This transformation will involve a fundamental change in the technological, economic and social organization of society, including world views, norms, values and governance.

Given the interconnected nature of climate change, loss of biodiversity, land degradation, and air and water pollution, it is essential that these problems are tackled together. Response options that address multiple issues can mitigate multidimensional vulnerability, minimize trade-offs and maximize synergies.

The loss of biodiversity can only be halted and reversed by providing space dedicated for nature while also addressing drivers such as changing land and sea use, overexploitation, climate change, pollution and invasive alien species.

The adverse effects of chemicals and waste on the environment and human health can be substantially reduced by implementing existing international chemicals conventions. Further progress will require strengthening the science-policy interface as the basis for evidence-based policymaking and improved management systems, along with legal and regulatory reform.

Governments should incorporate full natural capital accounting into their decision-making and use policies and regulatory frameworks to provide incentives for businesses to do the same. Yardsticks such as inclusive wealth (the sum of produced, natural, human and social capital) provide a better basis for investment decisions than gross domestic product, as they reflect the capacity of current and future generations to achieve and sustain higher living standards.

Changes in global patterns of consumption are critical to transforming food, water and energy systems, and to challenging social norms and business practices. Improving access to safe, nutritious and affordable food for all, while reducing food waste and changing dietary choices and consumer behaviour in high-income countries and groups, is central for the achievement of hunger, biodiversity, waste and climate goals.

Cities and other settlements, especially rapidly expanding urban areas and informal settlements, must be made more sustainable.

All actors have individual, complementary and nested roles to play in bringing about cross-sectoral and economy-wide transformative change with immediate and long-term impact. This can be enhanced through capacity-building and education.

Governments initiate and lead in intergovernmental cooperation, policies and legislation that transform society and the economy. Such transformations enable the private sector, financial institutions, labour organizations, scientific and educational bodies and media as well as households and civil society groups to initiate and lead transformations in their domains.

Individuals can facilitate transformation by, for instance, exercising their voting and civic rights, changing their diets and travel habits, avoiding waste of food and resources, and reducing their consumption of water and energy. They can also promote behavioural change by raising awareness in their communities. Human cooperation, innovation and knowledge-sharing will create new social and economic possibilities and opportunities in the transformation to a sustainable future.

Citation

United Nations Environment Programme (2021). Making Peace with Nature: A scientific blueprint to tackle the climate, biodiversity and pollution emergencies. Nairobi. https://www.unep.org/resources/making-peace-nature

Dasgupta Review: The Economics of Biodiversity (2021)

But like education and health, Nature is more than a mere economic good. Nature nurtures and nourishes us, so we will think of assets as durable entities that not only have use value, but may also have intrinsic worth. Once we make that extension, the economics of biodiversity becomes a study in portfolio management.

The damage inflicted on each type of asset (buildings, forests, the atmosphere, fisheries, human health) should be interpreted as depreciation of that asset. Pollution is the reverse of conservation.

These three features of Nature – mobility, invisibility and silence – are of profound significance to the economics of biodiversity

There is thus a tension between our demand for provisioning services on the one hand and our need for regulating, maintenance, and cultural services on the other. The distinction between drawing on Nature and depending on Nature is all-important here. Tensions between the two became manifest in recent centuries, but at the global scale it did so only gradually. As we confirm below, it has become acute since the middle of the 20th century.

Environmental externalities, for that is what we are focusing on here, are prevalent because we do not have to pay for many of our biosphere’s services. Being free, we demand too much; that is, we demand more than is in our collective interest.

Governments almost everywhere amplify adverse environmental externalities by paying people more to exploit the biosphere than they do to protect it. These payments have been called perverse subsidies. Examples include subsidies to agriculture, water, fossil fuels, fisheries, energy and fertilisers. These subsidies encourage over-extraction and harvesting of the biosphere.

The ecosystems supplying those public goods differ from one another, which means different remedies are required if their supply is to improve. Consider that the world’s rainforests are a seat of global public goods but fall within national jurisdictions. They thereby give rise to unidirectional externalities. If we are to preserve the world’s rainforests, the global community should be prepared to pay the nations harbouring them to do that.

Protection of the oceans should therefore be subject to international control (e.g. global taxation on ocean fisheries and transportation; extensions of Protected Areas, and so on).

The social world can be as powerful a carrier of externalities as the material environment. A common form in which they appear in the social world is in the way our relationships influence our preferences and wants. This is cause for hope that transitions to sustainable development are possible and with lower human costs than may be feared.

Advances in mapping the geographical spread of natural capital and in methods to monitor its use can help enforce property rights.

The macroeconomic models of growth and development in use in economic and finance ministries and Planning Commissions, however, do not acknowledge that material must balance – from source to sink.

Models are now urgently needed that follow the ecological principles outlined in the global economic model in the Review (Chapter 4*), including data on natural capital. Empirical estimations of such models are needed to address the question of whether, and for how long, the redirection of consumption and investment that is now required is compatible with global GDP growth in the immediate future.

For unidirectional externalities, payments by beneficiaries to those holding property rights to ecosystems is an arrangement resembling market operations. Named ‘Payments for Ecosystem Services’ (PES), the underlying idea is simple enough.

Polycentric structures that are best placed to protect and promote biodiversity are thus layered institutions: global, regional, national, and community based. Each layer requires an authority at the apex to achieve coordination below and with other layers laterally.

Standard economic measures such as GDP can mislead. If the goal is to protect and promote well-being across the generations (i.e. social well-being), governments should measure inclusive wealth (a measure of societal means). Inclusive wealth is the sum of the accounting values of produced capital, human capital, and natural capital.

Natural capital accounting is a necessary step towards the creation of inclusive wealth accounts. It enables us to understand and appreciate the place of Nature’s services in our economies, including the services that are usually overlooked; it enables us to track the movement of natural capital over time (a prerequisite for sustainability assessment); and it offers us a way to estimate the impact of policies on natural capital (a prerequisite for policy analysis).

Increased investment in physical accounts and in ecosystem valuation would improve them. International cooperation in the construction of national accounts and the sharing of data would improve decision-making around the world. Harmonisation of national accounts should be coupled with technical assistance. Incorporating natural capital accounts in macroeconomic surveillance undertaken by international financial institutions – for example, the International Monetary Fund’s Article IV surveillance activities (IMF, 2020) – would also send a strong signal, inspiring governments’ reform agendas to reflect the scale and urgency of the problems societies face.

Whether we account for Nature in economic measures is key for how we interpret productivity. Contemporary models of economic growth and development tend only to consider produced and human capital as primary factors of production, not explicitly natural capital.

Neither top-down nor bottom-up institutional structures work well. What the inhabitant of an ecosystem knows and can observe differs from what an agent from the national government knows and can observe. Moreover, institutions that work well are neither entirely rigid nor entirely flexible, they are both ‘polycentric’ and ‘layered’, meaning that knowledge and perspectives at all levels from different organisations, communities and individuals are pooled and spread.

Finance plays a crucial role. A significant portion of the responsibility for helping us to shift course will fall on the global financial system. Governments, central banks, international financial institutions (such as Multilateral Development Banks) and private financial institutions all have a role to play in making the shift.

To leave Nature alone so that it is able to thrive is to invest in it. Governments have tools at their disposal to make that happen, even if through indirect means. They range from taxes, subsidies, regulations and prohibitions to Nature-specific mechanisms, such as payments for ecosystem services (Box 13) and biodiversity offsetting schemes.

Far more global support is needed for initiatives directed at enhancing the understanding and awareness among financial institutions of Nature-related financial risks, learning and building on the advances on climate-related financial risks. Central banks and financial supervisors can support this by assessing the systemic extent of Nature-related financial risks.

A set of global standards is required. They should be underpinned by data that are both credible and useful for decision-making. Businesses and financial institutions could then be obliged to integrate Nature-related considerations with their other objectives. The idea ultimately is to have them assess and disclose their use of natural capital.

As citizens, we need to demand and shape the change we seek. We can do this, for example, by insisting that financiers invest our money sustainably, that firms disclose environmental conditions along their supply chains (product labelling is a partial method for doing that), even boycotting products that do not meet standards.

If we are not acting now, it is because we have grown distant from Nature. Such detachment is in part a symptom of societal change, including growing urbanisation, the profusion of technology, and reduced access to green spaces. Detachment from Nature has meant a loss in our physical and emotional state.

Establishing the natural world within educational policy would contribute to countering the shifting baseline, whereby we progressively redefine ourselves as inhabitants of an emptying world and believe that what we see is how it is and how it will continue to be.

Citation

Dasgupta, P. (2021), The Economics of Biodiversity: The Dasgupta Review. Abridged Version. (London: HM Treasury).

World Wildlife Fund Living Planet Report (2020)

The global Living Planet Index continues to decline. It shows an average 68% decrease in population sizes of mammals, birds, amphibians, reptiles and fish between 1970 and 2016. A 94% decline in the LPI for the tropical subregions of the Americas is the largest fall observed in any part of the world.

Using the data from 20,811 populations of 4,392 species, the 2020 global LPI shows an average 68% decline in monitored populations between 1970 and 2016 (range: -73% to -62%).

The 94% decline in the LPI for the tropical subregions of the Americas is the most striking result observed in any region. The conversion of grasslands, savannahs, forests and wetlands, the overexploitation of species, climate change, and the introduction of alien species are key drivers.

The 3,741 monitored populations – representing 944 species of mammals, birds, amphibians, reptiles and fishes – in the Freshwater Living Planet Index have declined by an average of 84% (range: -89% to -77%), equivalent to 4% per year since 1970. Species population trends are important because they are a measure of overall ecosystem health. Measuring biodiversity, the variety of all living things, is complex, and there is no single measure that can capture all of the changes in this web of life. Nevertheless, the vast majority of indicators show net declines over recent decades.

Since the industrial revolution, human activities have increasingly destroyed and degraded forests, grasslands, wetlands and other important ecosystems, threatening human well-being. Seventy- five per cent of the Earth’s ice-free land surface has already been significantly altered, most of the oceans are polluted, and more than 85% of the area of wetlands has been lost.

That’s because in the last 50 years our world has been transformed by an explosion in global trade, consumption and human population growth, as well as an enormous move towards urbanisation. Until 1970, humanity’s Ecological Footprint was smaller than the Earth’s rate of regeneration. To feed and fuel our 21st century lifestyles, we are overusing the Earth’s biocapacity by at least 56%.

Tigers, pandas and polar bears are well-known species in the story of biodiversity decline, but what of the millions of tiny, or as-yet-undiscovered, species that are also under threat? What is happening to the life in our soils, or in plant and insect diversity? All of these provide fundamental support for life on Earth and are showing signs of stress.

biodiversity loss threatens food security and urgent action is needed to address the loss of the biodiversity that feeds the world. Where and how we produce food is one of the biggest human-caused threats to nature and our ecosystems, making the transformation of our global food system more important than ever.

The challenge is to transform agricultural and fishing practices, many of which are unsustainable today, into ones that produce the affordable and nourishing food we need while protecting and conserving biodiversity. For agriculture, this means using sustainable agroecological practices, reducing the use of chemicals, fertilisers and pesticides, and protecting our soils and pollinators.

The Status of the World’s Soil Resources 33 concluded that the loss of soil biodiversity is considered one of the major soil threats in many regions of the world. Some responses to bend the curve of biodiversity loss include sustainable use of soil genetic resources and improved soil management to safeguard soil biota as well as its multiple functions.

Assessment of a sample of thousands of species representing the taxonomic and geographic breadth of global plant diversity showed that one in five (22%) are threatened with extinction, most of them in the tropics 50. Plant extinction risk is comparable to that of mammals and higher than for birds.

There is evidence of recent, rapid declines in insect abundance, diversity and biomass, but the picture is complex and most evidence comes from a few taxa and a few countries in the northern hemisphere.

The transformation of our economic systems is also critical. Our economies are embedded within nature, and it is only by recognising and acting on this reality that we can protect and enhance biodiversity and improve our economic prosperity.

We can estimate the value of ‘natural capital’ – the planet’s stock of renewable and non-renewable natural resources, like plants, soils and minerals – alongside values of produced and human capital –for example, roads and skills – which together form a measure of a country’s true wealth. Data from the United Nations Environment Programme shows that, per person, our global stock of natural capital has declined by nearly 40% since the early 1990s, while produced capital has doubled and human capital has increased by 13%.

A key problem is the mismatch between the artificial ‘economic grammar’ which drives public and private policy and ‘nature’s syntax’ which determines how the real world operates.

Together this evidence shows that biodiversity conservation is more than an ethical commitment for humanity: it is a non-negotiable and strategic investment to preserve our health, wealth and security.

Can we reverse these trends of decline? WWF co-founded a new research initiative – the Bending the Curve Initiative – that has developed pioneering modelling, providing a ‘proof of concept’ that we can halt, and reverse, terrestrial biodiversity loss from land-use change. And the models are all telling us the same thing: that we still have an opportunity to flatten, and reverse, the loss of nature if we take urgent and unprecedented conservation action and make transformational changes in the way we produce and consume food.

Until now, decades of words and warnings have not changed modern human society’s business-as-usual trajectory. Yet in times of rapid upheaval and disruption new ideas, creativity, processes and opportunities for transformation can arise. The future is always uncertain but perhaps the COVID-19 pandemic will spur us on to embrace this unexpected opportunity and revolutionise how we take care of our home.

Citation

WWF (2020) Living Planet Report 2020 - Bending the curve of biodiversity loss. Almond, R.E.A., Grooten M. and Petersen, T. (Eds). WWF, Gland, Switzerland.

IPBES Global Assessment (2019)

Nature and its vital contributions to people, which together embody biodiversity and ecosystem functions and services, are deteriorating worldwide.

The biosphere, upon which humanity as a whole depends, is being altered to an unparalleled degree across all spatial scales. Biodiversity– the diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems – is declining faster than at any time in human history.

Since 1970, trends in agricultural production, fish harvest, bioenergy production and harvest of materials have increased, but 14 of the 18 categories of contributions of nature that were assessed, mostly regulating and non-material contributions, have declined.

Nature across most of the globe has now been significantly altered by multiple human drivers, with the great majority of indicators of ecosystems and biodiversity showing rapid decline.

An average of around 25 per cent of species in assessed animal and plant groups are threatened, suggesting that around 1 million species already face extinction, many within decades, unless action is taken to reduce the intensity of drivers of biodiversity loss.

75% of terrestrial environment (66% of marine environment) “severely altered” to date by human actions.

300-400 million tons of heavy metals, solvents, toxic sludge and other wastes from industrial facilities are dumped annually into the world’s waters.

85% of wetlands present in 1700 had been lost by 2000 where loss of wetlands is currently three times faster, in percentage terms, than forest loss.

Average abundance of native species in most major land-based habitats has fallen by at least 20%, mostly since 1900.

Population sizes of wild vertebrate species have tended to decline over the last 50 years on land, in freshwater and in the sea.

Almost 33% of reef forming corals, sharks and shark relatives, and over 33% marine mammals threatened with extinction.

Over 500,000 of the world’s estimated 5.9 million terrestrial species have insufficient habitat for long term survival without habitat restoration.

Without such action, there will be a further acceleration in the global rate of species extinction, which is already at least tens to hundreds of times higher than it has averaged over the past 10 million years.

The rate of global change in nature during the past 50 years is unprecedented in human history.

The direct drivers of change in nature with the largest global impact have been (starting with those with most impact): changes in land and sea use; direct exploitation of organisms; climate change; pollution; and invasion of alien species.

Those five direct drivers result from an array of underlying causes – the indirect drivers of change – which are in turn underpinned by societal values and behaviours that include production and consumption patterns, human population dynamics and trends, trade, technological innovations and local through global governance. The rate of change in the direct and indirect drivers differs among regions and countries.

Climate change is a direct driver that is increasingly exacerbating the impact of other drivers on nature and human well-being.

Climate change is projected to become increasingly important as a direct driver of changes in nature and its contributions to people in the next decades.

Economic incentives have generally favoured expanding economic activity, and often environmental harm, over conservation or restoration. Incorporating the consideration of the multiple values of ecosystem functions and of nature’s contributions to people into economic incentives has, in the economy, been shown to permit better ecological, economic and social outcomes.

Nature managed by indigenous peoples and local communities is under increasing pressure. Nature is generally declining less rapidly in indigenous peoples’ land than in other lands, but is nevertheless declining, as is the knowledge of how to manage it. At least a quarter of the global land area is traditionally owned, managed, used or occupied by indigenous peoples.

Goals for conserving and sustainably using nature and achieving sustainability cannot be met by current trajectories, and goals for 2030 and beyond may only be achieved through transformative changes across economic, social, political and technological factors.

Past and ongoing rapid declines in biodiversity, ecosystem functions and many of nature’s contributions to people mean that most international societal and environmental goals, such as those embodied in the Aichi Biodiversity Targets and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, will not be achieved based on current trajectories.

The negative trends in biodiversity and ecosystem functions are projected to continue or worsen in many future scenarios in response to indirect drivers such as rapid human population growth, unsustainable production and consumption and associated technological development.

Except in scenarios that include transformative change, negative trends in nature, in ecosystem functions and in many of nature’s contributions to people are projected to continue to 2050 and beyond, due to the projected impacts of increasing land-/and sea-use change, exploitation of organisms and climate change.

Societal goals, including those related to food, water, energy, health and the achievement of human well-being for all, mitigating and adapting to climate change and conserving and sustainably using nature, can be achieved in sustainable pathways through the rapid and improved deployment of existing policy instruments and new initiatives that more effectively enlist individual and collective action for transformative change.

Since current structures often inhibit sustainable development and actually represent the indirect drivers of biodiversity loss, such fundamental, structural change is called for. By its very nature, transformative change can expect opposition from those with interests vested in the status quo, but such opposition can be overcome for the broader public good.

If obstacles are overcome, a commitment to mutually supportive international goals and targets, supporting actions by indigenous peoples and local communities at the local level, new frameworks for private sector investment and innovation, inclusive and adaptive governance approaches and arrangements, multi-sectoral planning, and strategic policy mixes can help to transform the public and private sectors to achieve sustainability at the local, national and global levels.

Five main interventions (“levers”) can generate transformative change by tackling the underlying indirect drivers of the deterioration of nature: (1) incentives and capacity-building; (2) cross-sectoral cooperation; (3) pre-emptive action; (4) decision-making in the context of resilience and uncertainty; and (5) environmental law and implementation.

The character and trajectories of transformation will vary across contexts, with challenges and needs differing, among others, in developing and developed countries. Risks related to the inevitable uncertainties and complexities in transformations towards sustainability can be reduced through governance approaches that are integrative, inclusive, informed and adaptive.

Land-based climate change mitigation activities can be effective and support conservation goals. However, the large-scale deployment of bioenergy plantations and afforestation of non-forest ecosystems can come with negative side effects for biodiversity and ecosystem functions.

Nature-based solutions can be cost-effective for meeting the Sustainable Development Goals in cities, which are crucial for global sustainability.

A key component of sustainable pathways is the evolution of global financial and economic systems to build a global sustainable economy, steering away from the current, limited paradigm of economic growth.

Citation

IPBES (2019): Summary for policymakers of the global assessment report on biodiversity and ecosystem services of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services. S. Díaz, J. Settele, E. S. Brondízio, H. T. Ngo, M. Guèze, J. Agard, A. Arneth, P. Balvanera, K. A. Brauman, S. H. M. Butchart, K. M. A. Chan, L. A. Garibaldi, K. Ichii, J. Liu, S. M. Subramanian, G. F. Midgley, P. Miloslavich, Z. Molnár, D. Obura, A. Pfaff, S. Polasky, A. Purvis, J. Razzaque, B. Reyers, R. Roy Chowdhury, Y. J. Shin, I. J. Visseren-Hamakers, K. J. Willis, and C. N. Zayas (eds.). IPBES secretariat, Bonn, Germany. 56 pages. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3553579

Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005)

Over the past 50 years, humans have changed ecosystems more rapidly and extensively than in any comparable period of time in human history, largely to meet rapidly growing demands for food, fresh water, timber, fiber, and fuel. This has resulted in a sub-stantial and largely irreversible loss in the diversity of life on Earth.

The changes that have been made to ecosystems have contributed to substantial net gains in human well-being and economic development, but these gains have been achieved at growing costs in the form of the degradation of many ecosystem services, increased risks of nonlinear changes, and the exacerbation of poverty for some groups of people. These problems, unless addressed, will substantially diminish the benefits that future generations obtain from ecosystems.

The challenge of reversing the degradation of ecosystems while meeting increasing demands for their services can be partially met under some scenarios that the MA has considered, but these involve significant changes in policies, institutions, and practices that are not currently under way.

Approximately 60% (15 out of 24) of the ecosystem services examined during the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment are being degraded or used unsustainably, including fresh water, capture fisheries, air and water purification, and the regulation of regional and local climate, natural hazards, and pests.

There is established but incomplete evidence that changes being made in ecosystems are increasing the likelihood of nonlinear changes in ecosystems (including accelerating, abrupt, and potentially irreversible changes) that have important consequences for human well-being.

Humans are fundamentally, and to a significant extent irreversibly, changing the diversity of life on Earth, and most of these changes represent a loss of biodiversity.

The harmful effects of the degradation of ecosystem services (the persistent decrease in the capacity of an ecosystem to deliver services) are being borne disproportionately by the poor, are contributing to growing inequities and disparities across groups of people, and are sometimes the principal factor causing poverty and social conflict.

More land was converted to cropland in the 30 years after 1950 than in the 150 years between 1700 and 1850. Cultivated systems (areas where at least 30% of the landscape is in crop-lands, shifting cultivation, confined livestock production, or freshwater aquaculture) now cover one quarter of Earth’s terrestrial surface.

The amount of water impounded behind dams quadrupled since 1960, and three to six times as much water is held in reservoirs as in natural rivers. Water withdrawals from rivers and lakes doubled since 1960; most water use (70% worldwide) is for agriculture.

Since 1960, flows of reactive (biologically available) nitrogen in terrestrial ecosystems have doubled, and flows of phosphorus have tripled. More than half of all the synthetic nitrogen fertilizer, which was first manufactured in 1913, ever used on the planet has been used since 1985.

Since 1750, the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide has increased by about 32% (from about 280 to 376 parts per million in 2003), primarily due to the combustion of fossil fuels and land use changes. Approximately 60% of that increase (60 parts per million) has taken place since 1959.

More than two thirds of the area of 2 of the world’s 14 major terrestrial biomes and more than half of the area of 4 other biomes had been converted by 1990, primarily to agriculture.

Citation

Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005. Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Synthesis.Island Press, Washington, DC.

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Sources

• Dasgupta, P. (2021), The Economics of Biodiversity: The Dasgupta Review. Abridged Version. (London: HM Treasury).

• IPBES (2019): Summary for policymakers of the global assessment report on biodiversity and ecosystem services of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services. S. Díaz, J. Settele, E. S. Brondízio, H. T. Ngo, M. Guèze, J. Agard, A. Arneth, P. Balvanera, K. A. Brauman, S. H. M. Butchart, K. M. A. Chan, L. A. Garibaldi, K. Ichii, J. Liu, S. M. Subramanian, G. F. Midgley, P. Miloslavich, Z. Molnár, D. Obura, A. Pfaff, S. Polasky, A. Purvis, J. Razzaque, B. Reyers, R. Roy Chowdhury, Y. J. Shin, I. J. Visseren-Hamakers, K. J. Willis, and C. N. Zayas (eds.). IPBES secretariat, Bonn, Germany. 56 pages. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3553579

• Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005. Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Synthesis. Island Press, Washington, DC.

• Pörtner, H.O., Scholes, R.J., Agard, J., Archer, E., Arneth, A., Bai, X., Barnes, D., Burrows, M., Chan, L., Cheung, W.L., Diamond, S., Donatti, C., Duarte, C., Eisenhauer, N., Foden, W., Gasalla, M. A., Handa, C., Hickler, T., Hoegh-Guldberg, O., Ichii, K., Jacob, U., Insarov, G., Kiessling, W., Leadley, P., Leemans, R., Levin, L., Lim, M., Maharaj, S., Managi, S., Marquet, P. A., McElwee, P., Midgley, G., Oberdorff, T., Obura, D., Osman, E., Pandit, R., Pascual, U., Pires, A. P. F., Popp, A., Reyes-García, V., Sankaran, M., Settele, J., Shin, Y. J., Sintayehu, D. W., Smith, P., Steiner, N., Strassburg, B., Sukumar, R., Trisos, C., Val, A.L., Wu, J., Aldrian, E., Parmesan, C., Pichs-Madruga, R., Roberts, D.C., Rogers, A.D., Díaz, S., Fischer, M., Hashimoto, S., Lavorel, S., Wu, N., Ngo, H.T. 2021. IPBES-IPCC co-sponsored workshop report on biodiversity and climate change; IPBES and IPCC, DOI:10.5281/zenodo.4782538

• United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification, 2022. The Global Land Outlook,second edition. UNCCD, Bonn.

• United Nations Environment Programme (2021). Becoming #GenerationRestoration: Ecosystem restoration for people, nature and climate. Nairobi.

• United Nations Environment Programme (2021). Making Peace with Nature: A scientific blueprint to tackle the climate, biodiversity and pollution emergencies. Nairobi. https://www.unep.org/resources/making-peace-nature

• United Nations Environment Programme (2022). State of Finance for Nature. Time to act:Doubling investment by 2025 and eliminating nature-negative finance flows. Nairobi. https://wedocs.unep.org/20.500.11822/41333

• WWF (2020) Living Planet Report 2020 - Bending the curve of biodiversity loss. Almond, R.E.A., Grooten M. and Petersen, T. (Eds). WWF, Gland, Switzerland.

• WWF (2022) Living Planet Report 2022 - Building a nature-positive society. Almond, R.E.A., Grooten, M., Juffe Bignoli, D. & Petersen, T. (Eds). WWF, Gland, Switzerland.

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Why And Biodiversity? To review nature’s contributions to people:

	Carbon Sequestration		Habitat Maintenance		Water Quality Regulation		Hazard Regulation		Air Quality
	Plant Pollination		Ocean Acidification Regulation		Climate Regulation		Seed Dispersal		Soil Formation

| And Biodiversity

Ah, could I lay me down in this long grass
And close my eyes, and let the quiet wind
Blow over me—I am so tired, so tired
Of passing pleasant places! All my life,

Following Care along the dusty road,
Have I looked back at loveliness and sighed;
Yet at my hand an unrelenting hand
Tugged ever, and I passed. All my life long

Over my shoulder have I looked at peace;
And now I fain would lie in this long grass
And close my eyes…

-“Journey”
Edna St. Vincent Millay

| And Biodiversity

…Give a warm name for every river
and every mountain,
Strangers, I will also wish you happy.
May you have a brilliant future!

May you lovers eventually become spouse!
May you enjoy happiness in this earthly world!
I only wish to face the sea,
with spring flowers blossoming.

-“Facing the Sea with Spring Blossoms”
Hai Zi

| And Biodiversity

I’ve listened: and all the sounds I heard
Were music —wind, and stream, and bird.
With youth who sang from hill to hill
I’ve listened: my heart is hungry still.

I’ve looked: the morning world was green;
Bright roofs and towers of town I’ve seen;
And stars, wheeling through wingless night.
I’ve looked: and my soul yet longs for light.

-“Alone”
Seigfried Sassoon

| And Biodiversity

…From the zephyr’s wing,
Exhales the incense of the blooming spring,
Soft purl the streams, the birds renew their notes,
And through the air their mingled music floats.

Through all the heav’ns what beauteous dies are spread!
But the west glories in the deepest red:
So may our breasts with every virtue glow,
The living temples of our God below!

-“An Hymn to the Evening”
Phillis Wheatley